Singing, screaming and shouting cells

Communication is complicated. So also for the various cells in our body. How could such completely different cells as neurons and let us say bonecells, or highly undifferentiated mesenchymatic cells "talk" to each other? What kind of language can they possibly use? At the Center for Models of Life they talk about decision taking.

One guru in this scientific area is Candice Pert. Her "Molecules of emotion" had a profound impact on me. She described this communication as a singing process, and the main media are peptides. She describes the cellmembrane as a veritable forest. The cell is communicating using frequensies, and a healthy cell use harmonious frequencies. What is harmony in this sense? Of course fractality. Looks like our body is fractal in every possible way? Structurally and functionally.

We are used to think of this "talk" in terms of nerves and hormones. Nerves "talk" by a chemical impulse, have we learned. But how this impulse can "tell" the information to its surroundings is still a mystery. In an impulse the only thing that is propagated is "noise". The neuron itself doesn´t change (but the synaptic/dendritic ends do change = LTP), or let us say the cellmembrane doesn´t change. The wave carry the information only, as a disturbance or noise. How can this information be encoded? Different frequencies? Perhaps we can compare to a computer lightfiber transfer?

The nerve pulse is frequential, not chemical. But how on earth do the synaptic endings know what kind of neurotransmitters to release, and how much, and when? Like all other cells the neurones have just one nucleus for proteine synthesis, or for making copies of DNA in form of single-helical mRNA. Just how is this mRNA transported to the synaptic bouton, which can be a very long distance, and exactly what regulate the proteine synthesis? Today we have very few answers to these questions.

One kind of answer is that the nerve impulse is in reality sound. This is explained by the alternative soliton-impulse theory proposed by Thomas Heimburg and collaborators at Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen. A density-pulse of different phases in the cellmembrane. During the pulse the membrane"halves" (lipidsheats) widens a little, but no increased heat is observed. On the countrary the membrane is cooled. Something is not what it should be here. Heimburg suggest we have ended up with the wrong theory for the nerve pulse. The impulse is sound, and a quantal one, using Josephson-currents and phase-transitions. The membrane biophysics group writes: "During the action potential in nerves one finds a reversible heat change and mechanical changes. This indicates that the physics underlying the nerve pulse relies on reversible physical processes. We recently explored the possibility that the nerve pulse is in fact a propagating density pulse in the nerve membrane (soliton). Such pulses can propagate close to chain melting transitions in cylindrical membranes. These pulses show many properties that have been experimentally measured, like reversible heat production and thickness changes associated to the nerve pulse. This theory yields a surprisingly simple explanation for anesthesia. It acts as a feezing point depressant for biomembrane transitions and renders nerve pulse generation more difficult."

This however explaines no more than the old theory of Hodgkin & Huxley about the functions of synaptic boutons. On the countrary we also gets the mysteries with proteines in the cell membrane, and the real functionings of receptors in the membrane. With the solitonic explanation there is no need for a lot of energy. What is the energy used for? Why so much mitochondrions in axones? The role of free radicals? How do the myelin work? What is the role of membrane receptors? How do they transfer their information? And how do the cells discriminate among all songs, shoutings and screams from all the different boutons (synchronization and organization)? This all points to a very strong electromagnetic function among receptores, neurotransmitters and other signal transduction matters as protons, electrons and calciumions.

Temperature, pH, and mechanical force among other factors interfere with the solitone. Topology is a word of honor. The relationship between the regulatory design and the functionality of molecular networks is a key issue in biology, says Axelsen. Rewiring of regulatory links plays a bigger role than genes. Many feed-forward loops works in transcription networks.

Epigenetics
Cells carry information handed down from their ancestors and are able to pass on information to their descendants. In many cases this ``memory" is epigenetic -- not stored in the DNA sequence -- allowing cells with identical DNA to maintain distinct properties. Epigenetic cell memory implies alternative states that are stable over time and are inherited through cell division. Mechanism for epigenetic cell memory invokes positive feedback loops, either on genes with mutual repression or, for eucaryotes, through recruited modifications of DNA bound nucleosomes. Thus, positive-feedback loops in nucleosome modification can, in theory, provide not only a mechanism for long-term epigenetic memory (Dodd), but also a powerful system for controlling the way in which a promoter gene responds to and integrates multiple signals.

Triggerpoints
Skeletal myofibrils spontaneously oscillate when free Ca2+ is low (in resting state), was reported by Ishiwata 1996.. Although this oscillation phenomenon called SPOC is apparently simple, the molecular mechanism seems to be complex. It is regulated by the mechanical strain imposed on actin and myosin; the enzymatic activity (ATPase) of actomyosin complex and the mechanical event (contraction) are thus coupled to each other.

Ysuda et.al. 1996. The change of sarcomere lengths in glycerinated skeletal myofibrils oscillated spontaneously with a peak-to-peak amplitude of about 0.5 microns under isotonic conditions in which the external loads were maintained constant. The shortening and yielding of sarcomeres occurred in concert, in contrast to the previously reported conditions (isomeric or auxotonic) under which the myofibrillar tension (connectin, an elastic proteine)is allowed to oscillate. This synchronous SPOC appears to be at a higher level of synchrony than in the organized state of SPOC previously observed under auxotonic conditions. The period of sarcomere length oscillation did not largely depend on external load. The synchronous SPOC implies that there is a mechanism for transmitting information between sarcomeres such that the state of activation of sarcomeres is affected by the state of adjacent sarcomeres. The change of myofibrillar tension is not responsible for the SPOC of each sarcomere but that it affects the level of synchrony of sarcomere oscillations. Declined synchrony is the result of increasing tension. A certain degree of strain is demanded, though.

Mechanical strain is also sometimes behind triggerpoints. Triggerpoints are not the same thing as acupuncture points. If we look at the points histochemically we can see this clearly. Triggerpoints are scars in myofibrils, whereas acupoints are distinct anatomical structures.

Muscles contract when, in response to a motor nerve signal, calcium is released from storage in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. In the resting muscle, ATP is bound to myosin in a high energy configuration. The myosin cannot however do anything until calcium is released from the sarcoplsamic reticulum. The calcium switch is turned off. Muscle in Rigor Mortis - the actin-myosin unit is locked together and cannot release: The calcium switch has turned on, and has enabled the high energy myosin-ATP to "bind and bend" to the actin with the release of low energy ADP and Phosphate. However that is as far as it goes: there is no more energy currency (ATP) in the muscle cell to drive the myosin cycle of "release and straighten, bind and bend", and the myosin remains stuck fast to the actin molecule. In active muscle - both calcium and ATP are present, and the myosin cycle of "Release and straighten, bind and bend" is in full flight. The myosin is "walking up the actin". Normal muscle has sufficient ATP in the cell and sufficient integrity in its sarcoplasmic reticulum to quickly re-absorb the calcium and turn off the contraction. However, a trigger point zone in a muscle cannot re-absorb the calcium and turn the contraction off: The contraction continues until tension pulls hard enough against the myosin "leg" to stop it at the bending phase of its cycle. Little wonder there is intense activity with build up of lactic acid and molecular damage. Necroses may be the result.

A Trigger Point in a Muscle, severe damage at the Sub-cellular and molecular levels has been noted. Microsocpic examination of trigger point sarcomeres reveals signs of damage to actin fibers. Triggerpoints are identified by what is called Travelli's twitch, a small reflexive contraction (motoric) of the muscle. The autonomous nervous system is one part of the trigger. EMG-response is much higher. Triggerpoints are not restricted to the muscles, but can be found in all kind of connective tissues, like scars, fascias, tendons, periosteum, joint capsules... Connective tissue is alpha-helical too, like actin.

Muscle force generation has been interpreted traditionally on the basis of the kinetics of crossbridge cycling, i.e. binding of myosin heads to actin and consecutive force generating conformational change of the head. However, several studies have shown that re-distribution of internal strain within myofibrils and muscle fibres may be a key player, particularly, during stretch or relaxation so that force kinetics parameters are strongly affected by sarcomere dynamics, says Telley IA & Denoth J in a rewiev-article 2007.

If we only knew why the calcium switch fails to turn off! Actin seems to be the important part (I-band). This amplification of coordinated cross-bridge binding and cycling indicates a mechanism of cooperativity that depends on sarcomere lattice geometry, specifically the ratio and arrangement of myofilaments. Topology is again very important.

Calciumwaves
The most important ion when talking about communication is calcium.
A large number of ion channels, enzymes, pumps and binding proteins participate in the generation of intracellular Ca2+ signals and their decoding. Ca2+ signalling takes place in the form of oscillations, waves and sparks. Such Ca2+ signals occur in almost all cells and regulate diverse cell functions. Perturbation of Ca2+ signalling leads to disease. Drugs that act on Ca2+-signalling are commonly used in treatment of several diseases.

This Ca-wave also mediate an metabolic wave of insuline and glucose-metabolism (for ATP/GTP?). Other ions as Na and K are also oscillating.

It acts as second messenger in the dendritic nerve loop. This is how the nerve pulse message is propagated? The most wellknown Ca2+-canals is activated of depolarization.

A revolution has happened.
Glial cells are very active parts of the nerve-pulse. Astrocytes organize synapses. They control neurotransmitter release and free calcium in the synaptic cleft through calciumwaves of their own. And neurotransmitters evoke calcium waves. "The existence of bidirectional signaling between astrocytes and neurons has revealed an important active role of astrocytes in the physiology of the nervous system. As a consequence, there is a new concept of the synaptic physiology-"the tripartite synapse", where astrocytes exchange information with the pre- and postsynaptic elements and participate as dynamic regulatory elements in neurotransmission. The control of the Ca2+ excitability in astrocytes is a key element in this loop of information exchange. The ability of astrocytes to respond to neuronal activity and discriminate between the activity of different synapses, the modulation of the astrocytic cellular excitability by the synaptic activity, and the expression of cellular intrinsic properties indicate that astrocytes are endowed with cellular computational characteristics that process synaptic information. Therefore, we propose that astrocytes can be considered as cellular elements involved in the information processing by the nervous system." Says Perea & Araque 2005.

We now get a picture where the actual decision making is done not by neurones but by glial cells. Neurones are simply a tool for glial cells? There is something else that gives orders to our nerves.

Nanomechanical motion
Pelling et.al. demonstrated that the cell wall of yest, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, exhibits local temperature-dependent nanomechanical motion at characteristic frequencies (0.8 to 1.6 kHz with amplitudes of ~3 nm), and a metabolic inhibitor causes the periodic motion to cease. An calculated activation energy of 58 kJ/mol is consistent with the cell's metabolism involving molecular motors such as kinesin, dynein, and myosin. The magnitude of the forces observed (~10 nN) suggests concerted nanomechanical activity. These examples of biological processes involving concerted motor protein action lend strong support to our conclusion that a metabolically driven nanomechanical process occurs at the yeast cell wall. This process cannot be observed by traditional cytological methods and occurs in cells in their natural state. The observed motion may be part of a communication pathway or pumping mechanism by which the yeast cell supplements the passive diffusion of nutrients and/or drives transport of chemicals across the cell wall. The current experiments were performed on yeast cells because they have a stiff cell wall. Extension of this experiment to mammalian cells will require the use of specially fabricated cantilevers with small spring constants comparable to the spring constant of the mammalian cell membrane (~0.002 N/m).

Microtubules.
In close connection with the membrane are microtubules (MTs). Also other kinds of tubuli are there. Cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with cellular membranes. Microtubules are components of the cytoskeleton, the network of proteinaceous fibers that endows the cell with structural integrity, motile properties, and internal organization.

MTs play a particularly important role in cell organization: they pull the chromosomes apart at mitosis, act as a ‘railroad system’ for intracellular transport, and define the localization and structure of internal membrane systems. Two characteristics of MTs are particularly significant for these functions. First, MT nucleation is regulated, and the limitation of nucleation to the centrosome endows most cell types with a radial organization. Second, and perhaps more importantly, the MT cytoskeleton is dynamic: individual MTs in the same cell (or same test tube) constantly change in length, either growing or shrinking with random transitions between these phases. This counterintuitive behavior is termed dynamic instability. I would say cellular "brain". First, dynamic instability is a mechanism for exploring cellular space, bringing MT railroads into contact with poorly diffusible cargo, such as chromosomes for subsequent transport, Second, this turnover ensures rapid response of the cytoskeleton to internal and external signals. Selective stabilization of dynamic MTs probably plays a key role in morphogenesis and appears to play a central role in the selforganizing properties of the mitotic spindle. Briefly, tubulin subunits (which are obligate dimers of the polypeptides alpha- and beta-tubulin) bind GTP. Upon polymerization, this GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP, but only after a short delay. This delay is thought to result in a ‘GTP cap’,which predisposes the MT to continued growth.

In addition to movement generated by the dynamic instability of the microtubule itself, the fibers are substrates along which motor proteins can move. The major microtubule motor proteins are kinesin, which generally moves towards the (+) end of the microtubule, and dynein, which generally moves towards the (−) end.

Microfilament.
Actin is the monomeric subunit of two types of filaments in cells: microfilaments, one of the three major components of the cytoskeleton, and thin filaments, part of the contractile apparatus in muscle cells. Thus, actin participates in many important cellular processes including muscle contraction, cell motility, cell division and cytokinesis, vesicle and organelle movement, cell signaling, and the establishment and maintenance of cell junctions and cell shape. Many of these processes are mediated by extensive and intimate interactions of actin with cellular membranes.

Around 6 nm in diameter, actin filament type is composed of two intertwined actin chains. Microfilaments are most concentrated just beneath the cell membrane, and are responsible for resisting tension and maintaining cellular shape, forming cytoplasmatic protuberances.

Endolysosomal tubules in dendritic immunocells are dynamic and display saltatory, bidirectional movement. These tubules have a functional dependence on microtubule tracts and can use polymerizing microtubules.

Nanotubules are discussed earlier in this blog.


Model of endolysosomal tubules and interdependence with microtubules.
Operating speeds of 0.2 to 8 µm s–1 for the myosins and 0.02 to 7 µm s–1 for the microtubule proteins kinesin and dynein have been reported, and many processes taking place inside the cell are mediated by these proteins, with operating speeds 1 to 2 orders of magnitude faster than the individual motor proteins. The force being generated at the cell wall can be determined to a value of 0.2 nN. We can exclude that a single motor protein is driving the observed nanomechanical motion, because the forces observed at the cell wall (~10 nN) are far too large in magnitude. Large-scale forces are generated in yeast cells through the action of many proteins working in a concerted and cooperative manner?

The best-studied molecular motors, myosin from skeletal muscle and conventional kinesin from brain, are remarkably similar in structure, yet have very different functions. These differences can be understood in terms of the 'duty ratio', the fraction of the time that a motor is attached to its filament. Differences in duty ratio can explain the diversity of structures, speeds and oligomerization states of members of the large kinesin, myosin and dynein families of motors. Howard J. 1997.

Is the subjective I a timelag?
Microtubules are the "brain" of the cell. They are doing the computating and desicion taking. And then the cells inform the rest of the body about their desicions through Em-waves, or sound, light etc. The result is then coordinated in waves like EMG, EEG and so on. But there is (always) a "time lag phase" in the pulse, like that "duty ratio" above. Also Benjamin Libet found this delay (350 - 500 msec.). He demonstrated that the readiness potential precedes the time at which participants consciously decide to perform an intentional motor act. Neural activity was preceding the motor response, similar to Libet's experiments; this means the sensory world is experienced delayed with respect to real time. However, this activity was already present prior to stimulus presentation, and thus before participants could decide which button to press. New research has identified networks of brain areas that underlie voluntary action. These areas generate information for forthcoming actions, and also cause the distinctive conscious experience of intending to act and then controlling one's own actions. Automatic motor activation (reflexes) forms an intrinsic part of all behavior, rather than being categorically different from voluntary actions. A crucial issue is how such automatic mechanisms are controlled so that the most appropriate responses are made and unwanted responses inhibited.

If we see the subjective I (and perhaps the consciousness in biological way) as a disturbance of the cosmic Em-waves, life itself is indeed very much the same as these oscillations. Incoming oscillation in kHz for Ca, or even in GHz for 1 - 10 mm-waves (the extremely-high-frequency (EHF) band: f = 300 - microwave - to 30 GHz - IR - optical wave). This is then reduced in DNA to UV-band-frequency. And from DNA further reduced in EMG; the bigger the disturbance the bigger value. Eye has one of the biggest frequencies, together with the hearth. They are doing very hard work.
Further reduction of the disturbance is seen in EEG, with the highest value, 40 Hz, for incoming disturbances. This is then reduced to alpha-waves about 10 Hz. This can be seen as the ultimate brainwave, and is only slightly above Schumann resonance waves of Earth. Indeed there are also lower frequencies. Josephson oscillate at somewhat above 3 Hz.

What is characteristic for these waves? Of course their information-content, or their synchronic and ordered behaviour, their harmony. If these waves are interrupted in the brainstem they are loosing this ordered behaviour and is becoming desynchronized or global. Then the patient is in coma, but not necessarily without consciousness.

Desynchronized waves are screaming?


Rabbit horizontal cell network revealed by dye injections. The dye spreads via the gap junctions linking the horizontal cells to reveal the centrally injected cell and hundreds of neighbouring cells.

Plasmatic network and hemichannels syncytia.
Coupling seems essential to maintain this oscillatory behaviour, as isolated cells are unable to oscillate. Coupling coefficients and coupling conductances changes dynamically and in phase with the membrane potential oscillations, pointing to an active modulation of the gap junctions. Nanotubes and tunnels are connecting different cells into a cell - cell network through gap junctions. The role of the junctional couplings is to synchronize the oscillations, interfere with the ionic permeabilty and intracellular messages. Emerging evidence suggests that gap junction hemichannels can act as stand-alone functional channels in astrocytes. They can also mediate robust efflux of glutamate, aspartate, and other messages. Also viable proteines can transinfect cells, as in the Rhett syndrome. Chaperones, kinesines, TNFs, cytokines, ILs, PGLs and many, many more signal substances, voltage and metabolites, even oxygen and free radicals, work in intimate connection to this network. It is really question of sick or health states.

'When a "tape" of mRNA passes through the "playing head" of a ribosome, the "notes" produced are amino acids and the pieces of music they make up are proteins.' You get "DNA-songs".

Referenses:
Axelsen, Jacob Bock et.al. 2008: One hub-one process: a tool based view on regulatory network topology. BMC Systems Biology 2008, 2:25. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1752-0509/2/25

Dodd IB, Micheelsen MA, Sneppen K, Thon G (2007) Theoretical analysis of epigenetic cell memory by nucleosome modification. Cell 129: 813–822 http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v4/n1/full/msb200821.html#B7

Libet B, Gleason CA, Wright EW, Pearl DK. 1983: Time of conscious intention to act in relation to onset of cerebral activity (readiness-potential). The unconscious initiation of a freely voluntary act. Brain. 1983 Sep;106 (Pt 3):623-42.

Nick, P. 1998: Signals, Motors, Morphogenesis — the Cytoskeleton in Plant Development. Institut für Biologie II, Freiburg, Germany
Received: Sept 25, 1998; http://www.rz.uni-karlsruhe.de/~db45/Publikationen/Nick%201999.pdf

Milo, R. 2002: Network Motifs: Simple Building Blocks of Complex Networks. Science 25 October 2002: Vol. 298. no. 5594, pp. 824 - 827. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/298/5594/824

Sneppen, Kim, Mille A Micheelsen & Ian B Dodd (2008).Ultrasensitive gene regulation by positive feedback loops in nucleosome modification. Molecular Systems Biology 4. http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v4/n1/full/msb200821.html

Pelling, Andrew E., Sadaf Sehati, Edith B. Gralla, Joan S. Valentine, James K. Gimzewski 2004: Local Nanomechanical Motion of the Cell Wall of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Science 20 August 2004: Vol. 305. no. 5687, pp. 1147 - 1150. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/305/5687/1147

Telley IA, Denoth J. 2007: Sarcomere dynamics during muscular contraction and their implications to muscle function. J Muscle Res Cell Motil. 2007;28(1):89-104.

Travell & Simons' Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual (2-Volume Set.)David G. Simons (Author), Janet G. Travell (Author), Lois S. Simons (Author), Barbara D. Cummings (Author).

Yasuda, K, Y Shindo, and S Ishiwata 1996: Synchronous behavior of spontaneous oscillations of sarcomeres in skeletal myofibrils under isotonic conditions. Biophys J. 1996 April; 70(4): 1823–1829. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=8785342

Genkoden

biology200.gsu.edu/.../4564%20'04/lecture12.html Största delen av genomet består av annat än gener.

Det är ett allmänt känt mysterium att vi har för litet gener. Vartefter genkartan blivit känd har antalet blivit mindre och mindre, från c. 100000 till i dag litet över 20000.

Det som skiljer en mänska från en schimpans är också otroligt litet, bara några baspar, 0,6 %. Tidigare trodde man att skillnaden, c. 1,5% av generna, skulle kunna förklara skillnaden, ex. med sk. "nyckelgener". Vartefter schimpansens DNA kartlagts har man kommit underfund med att så inte är fallet. Utvecklingen från schimpans till mänska har krävt också annat än genmutationer.

Gener är starkt överreklamerade. Mänskans DNA är kartlagt, har man trumpeterat ut. Man funderar tom. på att patentera gener. Allt detta är vilseledande tomt prat, kanhända för att få forskningspengar. I dagens läge är gener rätt säkra forskningsobjekt, just genom lättheten att få finansiering.

DNA består mest av - nonsens. Bara 1,2% av DNA:t är gener, extroner. Resten är "skräp", vilket är en felaktig term, för skräpet, intronerna, är den del av genomet som är den viktiga biten. Hela 98,8 % av DNA:t är okänt. Det kodar annat än gener, ex. olika RNA. Också gener kodar RNA för den delen, sk. messengerRNA. Men RNAs produkt är så mycket mera än proteiner. Small RNA är ett ex. De ger en sorts primitivt immunsystem, som man tror fanns innan det immunsystem vi har i dag fanns. Den här sk. interferensen upptäckte man av en slump när man ville få fram extra mörkblåa petunior. De blev till allas förvåning vita, och så fick man upp spåret till detta stora mysterium. En google-sökning i dag på siRNA ger miljoner träffar. Det är en forskning i stark expansion.

Fenotypen är inte alltid beroende av genomet. Kallas non-Mendelisk nedärvning. I det här fallet påverkas slutresultatet (fenotypen) av ett intensivt informationsutbyte mellan kromosom och plastid, ex klorofyll, mitokondrie.
www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e10/10e.htm

Evolutionen tar inte bort någon viktig funktion i första taget, utan funktionerna läggs till. Det kan inte heller vara på något annat sätt, för om en funktion tas bort innan en ny funktion prövats fram genom försök och misstag, kanske den nya funktionen inte visar sig vara livsduglig, och då slutar det illa. Det är inte bara RNA som adderas, utan det gäller alla funktioner. Nervsystem (DC-elektriskt system, nanotuber, meridianer), hormoner (autokrina hormon), signalämnen (eikosanoider) mm. har alla ett modernt system och ett eller flera primitiva system (de inom parentes) som fungerar sida vid sida. Ofta har det nyutvecklade systemet fungerat nästan parallellt med det gamla som därigenom undgått upptäckt, vilket är fallet med nervsystemet. Jämsides med vårt digitala nervsystem (on-off-system) finns det ett analogt likströmssystem. Och dessutom har vi ett "våt-elsystem" i de sk. meridianerna, som kan öppnas eller stängas i sin helhet via piezoelektriska signaler. Gap junctions m.fl. desmosomer är en led i detta system. Här syns igen den fraktala egenskapen i mänskokroppen? Man kan kanske jämföra med en mobiltelefon där över 10 tunna kretskort läggs ovanpå varann. Detta syns inte i funktionen alls.

Skillnaden mellan schimpans och mänska belyser detta på ett bra sätt. Skillnaden finns i intronerna, eller i hur generna används. Mänskans DNA är mera flexibelt än schimpansens DNA. Eller eg. mänskan har ett mera anpassningsbart sätt att använda generna. Intronerna bestämmer hur generna används. Samma gen kan ingå i flera olika protein, och därför kan genprodukten mångdubblas i det sk. proteonomet. Och ännu mera i metabonomet.

Genkoden är inte alls enkel. Finns det flera olika genkoder? Den nuvarande genkoden med tripletter ger 64 möjligheter, men bara 20 aminosyror + start. 3 st möjligheter saknas? I dag finns misstanken om att alla aminosyror inte är likvärdiga, trots att de räknas till samma aminosyra. Den sista koden skiljer? En annan typ av kod kan vara ex. purin-pyrimidin (energikällor). Metylerade (platsen viktig) puriner bryts ner, hos pyrimidiner bryts ringen upp, reduceras av NADPH. Eller topoisomeras-enzymet som får DNA-topologin att ändras? Tyrosin katalyserar omformningen, "klippningen" och avkodningen? Stressen ökar på DNA, konfigurationen ändrar. Nukleosomer med histoner är naturens svar. De låser DNA:t. Allt detta är mycket intressant och har fått ett eget namn; epigenetik. Eller hur generna aktiveras eller inaktiveras. Det är inte generna som är de intressanta delarna, utan det som styr genernas uttryck.

Ser man på intronernas sekvenser blir man inte klok. En upprepning ofta av samma kodord. De liknar mycket telomerernas koder, och telomererna vet vi är ytterst viktiga för kromosomens avkodning vid replikationen. Avkodningen vid syntes av genprodukt styrs enligt samma typ av mekanism, en elektromagnetisk våg? Telepatiska gener? Identiska basmönster förenar?

Intronerna, i dag kallat tilke-DNA, utfyllnads-DNA, kan härstamma från virus. Man har funderat om virus på detta sätt kan gömma sig, för att en dag igen vakna till liv. Gamla, utdöda farsoter kanske en dag oväntat blossar upp på nytt? En stor del av intronerna misstänker man består just av sådant som förändrats så att det inte mera fungerar, ex doftsinnet. Hos däggdjuren fungerar c. 1000 gener, hos schimpanser fungerar bara 65 % mera, hos mänska 40%. Resten är icke funktionsdugliga minnen ur det förflutna? Men kan dessa minnen ibland aktiveras? Växterna kanske har svaret. Samma gener styr utvecklingen av hjärtblad och blomma. För att inte tala om insekternas metamorfos. Fraktala funktioner igen?

Sjukdomar som mänskan, och dess förfäder haft, kan berätta mycket om intronerna och genregleringen. En utdöd sjukdom kanske bekämpades med en viss molekyl. Schimpanserna har ex. en gen som bildar sialinsyra, en antiviral komponent. Mänskan saknar denna gen. Mänskan får mera virussjukdomar, ex. AIDS? Sjukdom befrämjar mutationer, vilket man sett gälla också hos bakterier. De har satt detta i system, så att då någon fara hotar startar en formidabel "mutationsexplosion". Alltid är det någon av de nya varianterna som fungerar.

Schizofreni är en sjukdom som allmänt anses vara en orsak till att arten mänskan föddes. Genier och de schizofrena har något gemensamt.

Också matvanorna syns i intronerna. Maten kan ha gjort så att hjärnan började växa någon gång för 70000 milj.år sedan. Omega 3 havsoljor är en sådan faktor. Därför är omega 3 så hälsosam i dag, och vi äter för litet havsmat, eftersom våra kostrekommendationer är felaktiga. De rekommenderar på tok för mycket kolhydrater. Inte underligt alls att en av faktorerna bakom schizofreni misstänks vara brist på omega 3? Omega 3 från växtriket är inte alls samma sak. De är för långa kedjor. De måste bearbetas extra, och det kräver energi. Nyttan blir då inte samma sak. Och dessutom har oljor från ex.lin och ryps sina egna negativa biverkningar, ex. i fråga om sköldkörtelfunktionen.

Alla däggdjur har FOXP2-genen men det är bara mänskan som kan tala. Samma gen har flera olika funktioner. Hos mänskan har den muterat så att basparen ligger annorlunda. Men skillnaden mänska - schimpans är bara två mutationer som skett för kanske 200000 år sedan. De har gett mänskan egenskaper som hjälpt fram talet?

Mikrocephalia- genen bestämmer hjärnans storlek. Fel på den ger liten hjärna och dvärgväxt. En annan gen bidrar också, MYH-16, vilken producerar proteiner som reglerar käkmuskulaturen. Hos mänskan fungerar inte dessa gener. Köttätandet har bidragit, då de inte längre behövdes, och så muterades de och mutationen korrigerades inte. Hjärnan fick mera rum att växa. Den andliga tillväxten kunde börja. Men generna i sig kan inte ensamma förklara detta.

En stor hjärna kräver mycket energi. Dessa gener måste då omformas. Under utvecklingens gång har de gener som styr hjärnaktiviteten fyrdubblat sin aktivitet. DNA är inte så viktigt? Det viktiga är hur det används? Cis-reglerelement styr? Mänskan har stor varians i sina cis-element. Mänskans genom är mera kreativt och har större möjlighetspotential? Frontalloben och neocortex uttrycker en fraktal funktion?

De funktionella begränsningarna mot olika proteiner har blivit slappare hos mänskan. Vi kan tillåta oss en större variation än schimpansen? Vi har det bättre ställt. Nukleotidsekvenser borde ställas mot fysiologi och biokemi, enl. Satta.

Mänskans nervsystem innehåller c. 100 miljarder celler av 10000 olika typer, men det finns bara ett par tusen reglerande gener. Hur avgörs ödet för en enskild cell? Processen sker i en regleringskedja genom samverkan av 4-7 olika gener. Det kan liknas vid en kryddhylla, där varje krydda har sin egen smak, och blandningar ger sina egna sensationer. Rönen gäller två typer av nervceller hos bananflugor, men angående funktionen skiljer vi oss inte så mycket från bananflugorna.

En av de stora skillnaderna är mänskans behov av att förstå sig själv och sin omgivning. Tolkningarna, de sk. qualias, fenomenen, är viktiga, och här använder vi spegelneuroner som hjälp. Spegelneuroner får sin utformning under barnaåren. Autister har dåligt fungerande spegelneuroner. Det är en fråga om medvetande. Uppfattningsförmågan eller perceptionen, som för det mesta sker i det undermedvetna? Medvetenheten och medvetandet är två olika saker. Signalintensitet som en storskalig integration, eller timing (impulsfrekvens, amplitudfrekvens?) eller något annat? Kanske magnetism? Funktionella cortikala områden, sk. Zeki-noder? Kandidaterna är många.

Referenser:
Angstadt, Carol, 1997: Purine and pyrimidine metabolism. NetBiochem. http//library.med.utah.edu/NetBiochem/pupyr/

Forbes, Ken, 2005: You Descend from Banana or Bonobo? GENEALOGY-DNA-L Archives 2005-01 > 1106711681

Kornyshev, Alexei, 2008: 'Telepathic' genes recognize similarities in each other. BJS. http://www.imperial.ac.uk

Priemé, Anders2005: Se tärkeä ero. Tieteen kuvalehti 2005(2):36-41.

Rees, Geraint et.al. NEURAL CORRELATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS IN HUMANS. www.nature.com/reviews/neuro Nature review, APRIL 2002, VOL 3: 261- 270.

Satta, Yoko, 2001: Comparison of DNA and protein polymorphisms between humans and chimpanzees. Genes & Genetic Systems Vol. 76 (2001) , No. 3 p.159-168

Thor, Stefan 2007: Genkod för nervceller knäckt? Forskning.se, 22.2.2007. Pressmeddelande från Linköpings universitet. PLoS Biology febr. 2007. Magnus Baumgardt et.al. Specification of neuronal identities by feedforward combinatorial coding.

Liver

The liver plays a major role in metabolism and has a number of functions in the body including detoxification, glycogen storage and plasma protein synthesis. It also produces bile which is important for digestion. It´s main function may be in accommodation of our organism to our surroundings. Therefore also the feelings are so important to the liver. In traditional chinese medicine the liver is our temper, or our heat.

Medical terms related to the liver often start in hepato- or hepatic from the Greek word hepar. The adult human liver normally weighs between 1.0 - 2.5 kilograms. It is unique and the only human organ capable of natural regeneration of lost tissue. The liver thus has a very big flexibility. But this regeneration is not complete, thus the need for transplantings sometimes. When the liver has lost about 70% of its functional capacity this can be seen in liver lab tests, and its renewal is also then disturbed. When liver cells are sclerified they no longer can renew themself, because sclerosis means scar tissue. Earlier stages can be renewed, but the process may be long. Often some kind of lifequality change is required first.

Living donor liver transplantation is a technique in which a portion of a living person's liver is removed and used to replace the entire liver of the recipient. This was first performed in 1989 for pediatric liver transplantation. Only 20% of an adult's liver (Couinaud segments 2 and 3) is needed to serve as a liver allograft for an infant or small child. More recently, adult-to-adult liver transplantation has been done using the donor's right hepatic lobe which amounts to 60% of the liver. Due to the ability of the liver to regenerate, both the donor and recipient end up with normal liver function if all goes well. But there have been at least two donor deaths out of the first several hundred cases.

Surface anatomy
Apart from a patch where it connects to the diaphragm, the liver is covered entirely by visceral peritoneum, a thin, double-layered membrane that reduces friction against other organs. The peritoneum folds back on itself to form the falciform ligament and the right and left triangular ligaments. The falciform ligament is visible on the front (anterior side) of the liver. This divides the liver into a left anatomical lobe, and a right anatomical lobe.

If the liver is flipped over, to look at it from behind (the visceral surface), there are two additional lobes between the right and left. These are the caudate lobe (the more superior), and below this the quadrate lobe.

From behind, the lobes are divided up by the ligamentum venosum and ligamentum teres (anything left of these is the left lobe), the transverse fissure (or porta hepatis) divides the caudate from the quadrate lobe, and the right sagittal fossa, which the inferior vena cava runs over, separates these two lobes from the right lobe.

Functional anatomy
It is crucial to understand the organization of liver based on blood supply and biliary drainage, and its fysical support. In the widely used Couinaud or "French" system, the functional lobes are further divided into a total of eight segments based on secondary and tertiary branching of the blood supply.In the growing fetus, a major source of blood to the liver is the umbilical vein which supplies nutrients to the growing fetus. After birth, the umbilical vein and ductus venosus are completely obliterated two to five days postpartum; the former becomes the ligamentum teres and the latter becomes the ligamentum venosum . In the disease state of cirrhosis and portal hypertension, the umbilical vein can open up again.

Physiology
The liver has about 200 different "tasks", and is therefore a very busy organ. It gives warmth to the body. In traditional chinese medicine it gives us the heat, together with the hormonal metabolism.

* The liver produces and excretes bile required for food digestion. Some of the bile drains directly into the duodenum, and some is stored in the gallbladder.
* The liver performs several roles in carbohydrate metabolism:
o Gluconeogenesis (the formation of glucose from certain amino acids, lactate or glycerol)
o Glycogenolysis (the formation of glucose from glycogen)
o Glycogenesis (the formation of glycogen from glucose)
o The breakdown of insulin and other hormones
* The liver also performs several roles in lipid metabolism:
o Cholesterol synthesis
o The production of triglycerides (fats).
* The liver produces coagulation factors I (fibrinogen), II (prothrombin), V, VII, IX, and XI, as well as protein C, protein S and antithrombin.
* The liver neutralizes toxins, most medicinal products, and hemoglobin.
* The liver converts ammonia to urea.
* The liver stores of a multitude of substances, including glucose in the form of glycogen, vitamin B12, iron, and copper.
* In the first trimester fetus, the liver is the main site of red blood cell production. By the 42nd week of gestation, the bone marrow has almost completely taken over that task.

Diseases of the liver
Many diseases of the liver are accompanied by jaundice caused by increased levels of bilirubin in the system. The bilirubin results from the breakup of the hemoglobin of dead red blood cells; normally, the liver removes bilirubin from the blood and excretes it through bile.

* Hepatitis, inflammation of the liver, caused mainly by various viruses but also by some poisons, autoimmunity or hereditary conditions.
* Cirrhosis is the formation of fibrous tissue in the liver, replacing dead liver cells. The death of the liver cells can for example be caused by alcoholism or other toxins, or hepatitis
* Hemochromatosis, a hereditary disease causing the accumulation of iron in the body, eventually leading to liver damage
* Cancer of the liver (primary hepatocellular carcinoma or cholangiocarcinoma and metastatic cancers, usually from other parts of the gastrointestinal tract)
* Wilson's disease, a hereditary disease which causes the body to retain copper
* Primary sclerosing cholangitis, an inflammatory disease of the bile duct, autoimmune in nature.
* Primary biliary cirrhosis, autoimmune disease of small bile ducts
* Budd-Chiari syndrome, obstruction of the hepatic vein.
* Steatosis, fatty liver syndrome.

Most liver diseases cause only mild symptoms initially, while it is vital that these diseases are detected early. Hepatic involvement in some diseases can be of crucial importance.

Liver function tests (LFTs or LFs), are groups of clinical biochemistry laboratory blood assays to test the proper function of the liver. These are enzymes that are most abundant in liver tissue, metabolites or products.

Regular liver panel
*Total Protein (TP). The liver produces most of the plasma proteins in the body. So it makes sense to measure the amount of protein in the blood. Reference range (60-80 g/L).
*Albumin (Alb). Albumin is a protein made specifically by the liver. It is the main constituent of total protein; the remaining fraction is called globulin (including e.g. the immunoglobulins). Albumin levels are decreased in chronic liver disease, such as cirrhosis. It is also decreased in nephrotic syndrome, where it is lost through the urine. Poor nutrition or states of protein catabolism may also lead to hypoalbuminaemia. The half-life of albumin is approximately 20 days. Albumin is not considered to be an especially useful marker of liver synthetic function, coagulation factors (see below) are much more sensitive. The reference range is 30-50 g/L.
*Alanine transaminase (ALT), also called Serum Glutamic Pyruvic Transaminase (SGPT) or Alanine aminotransferrase (ALAT) is an enzyme present in hepatocytes (liver cells). When a cell is damaged, it leaks this enzyme into the blood, where it is measured. ALT rises dramatically in acute liver damage, such as viral hepatitis or paracetamol overdose. Elevations are often measured in multiples of the upper limit of normal (ULN). The reference range is 15-45 U/L in most laboratories. When liver cell death increases, ALT levels rise above the normal range. The spillover of this enzyme into blood is routinely measured as a marker of abnormal liver-cell damage. For example, alcoholic or viral hepatitis will increase ALT levels, as will severe congestive heart failure. An elevated ALT in the presence of normal levels of plasma alkaline phosphatase helps distinguish liver disease caused by liver-cell damage from diseases caused by problems in biliary ducts.
*Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), is an enzyme in the cells lining the biliary ducts of the liver. If there is an obstruction in the bile duct, e.g. gallstones, ALP levels in plasma will rise. ALP is also present in bone and placental tissue, so it is higher in growing children (as their bones are being remodelled). The reference range is usually 30-120 U/L.
*Total bilirubin (TBIL). Bilirubin is a breakdown product of heme (a part of hemoglobin in red blood cells). The liver is responsible for clearing this, excreting it out through bile into the instestine. Problems with the liver or blockage of the drainage of bile will cause increased levels of bilirubin, as will increased haemolysis of red cells.
Direct bilirubin, or unconjugated bilirubin is often measured in tandem, especially if the total bilirubin level is elevated. Bilirubin is unconjugated before the liver modifies it for excretion. It is dangerous in babies, as it can pass the blood-brain barrier causing kernicterus.

Other tests commonly requested alongside LFTs:
*Aspartate transaminase (AST), also called Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase (SGOT) or aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT) is similar to ALT in that it is another enzyme associated with liver parenchymal cells. It is raised in acute liver damage. It is also present in red cells and cardiac muscle.
*Gamma glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT). Although reasonably specific to the liver and a more sensitive marker for cholestatic damage than ALP, Gamma glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) may be elevated with even minor, sub-clinical levels of liver dysfunction. It can also be helpful in identifying the cause of an isolated elevation in ALP. GGT is raised in alcohol toxicity (acute and chronic).
*Coagulation tests (e.g. INR). The liver is responsible for the production of coagulation factors. The international normalized ratio (INR) measures the speed of a particular pathway of coagulation, comparing it to normal. If the INR is increased, it means it is taking longer than usual for blood to clot. The INR will only be increased if the liver is so damaged that synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors has been impaired: it is not a sensitive measure of liver function.
*Hyaluronic Acid Test. Hyaluronic Acid (HA), also called hyaluronate or hyaluronan, is a mucopolysaccharide widely distributed throughout the body. HA is produced mainly by fibroblasts and other specialized connective tissue cells. As a free molecule, HA can be found in the plasma and synovial fluid. HA is quickly removed from circulation by specific receptors present in sinusoidal cells (SEC) of the liver; the estimated half-life in plasma is 5-6 minutes. Increased plasma HA levels may result from one or more of the following:

* Decreased removal of HA from plasma, as a result of liver damage
* Increased production of HA by synovial cells or fibroblasts
Serum HA is elevated in patients with alcoholic liver disease and can be used to detect the progression from alcoholic fatty liver to cirrhosis. Until now, the diagnosis of liver fibrosis and cirrhosis has been established mainly by histologic examination of liver biopsy samples. However, since the fibrotic changes are often distributed unevenly throughout the liver, liver biopsy has been associated with a sampling error of up to 24%. The risk of complications including bleeding and infection, the discomfort to patients and the high cost of hospitalization associated with this invasive procedure limit the use of liver biopsy as a routine screening procedure for cirrhosis. Serum HA levels have been correlated with the degree of fibrosis and cirrhosis in chronic liver disease and may be a non-invasive, less costly method to assess disease status in these patients. Unlike conventional liver function tests, HA levels reflect the function of sinusoidal endothelial cells (SEC) and may be an early marker of toxic liver damage.

Liver failure.
Liver failure can be considered more of a functional syndrome than an anatomical one. Treatment of liver failure includes two components – treating the cause of liver failure and prevention of the development of neurological damage. The second component is more important. Some of the signs of liver failure are:

*General failure of health like weakness, loss of appetite, wasting etc.
*Jaundice
*Bluish discoloration of the nails
*Fever
*Fetor hepaticus – It is a sweetish slightly fecal smell of breath
*Ascites – collection of fluid in the abdominal cavity
*Changes in the protein metabolism
*Skin changes like spider nevi, redness of the palms, white nails etc
*Endocrine changes – In the male, the changes are towards feminization. The changes include small, soft testes, loss of secondary sexual hair, enlargement of breast, diminished sexual desire and potency. In the females, the changes are less and towards gonadal atrophy
*Defective blood clotting

Steatosis.
As the liver becomes more fatty, liver enzymes start to increase and the liver can become inflamed. This inflammation can result in scarring and cirrhosis, or hardening of the liver. Liver function can become compromised. It's estimated that about 10-20 percent of the population of the United States is afflicted with fatty liver syndrome. While fatty liver DOES affect liver function, it's believed that someone who has fatty liver syndrome is not likely to suffer permanent liver damage.
Fatty liver or steatosis hepatis is a reversible condition seen in chronic alcoholism and many other conditions, where large vacuoles of lipid accumulate in hepatocytes (the cells of the liver). The lipid within the vacuoles is a particular type of lipid known as triglyceride. Many chemicals, such as alcohol and drugs can cause fatty liver. Also hormones as thyroxine. TSH is warranted, as hypothyroidism is more prevalent in steatose/NASH patients.
Fatty liver can occur in diabetes mellitus and in pregnancy. It can also be seen in starvation and obesity. In addition, it is also a minor symptom of hepatitis. The treatment of fatty liver depends on what is causing it, and generally, treating the underlying cause will remove the problem.

A fatty liver symptom isn't typically easy to diagnose, because fatty liver disease usually doesn't present many symptoms in the early stages. As a result, many people with fatty liver don't realize they're developing a liver problem. When a fatty liver symptom does appear, it might be

* Abdominal swelling
* Fever
* Jaundice, or yellowing of the skin
* Overall itchiness
* Right-side abdominal pain
* Small yellow skin nodules

Any of these should be considered a possible fatty liver symptom. If any of these symptoms should appear, the patient is advised to have liver function tests done. If fatty liver is present, the test results will show an enlarged liver or minor elevation of liver enzymes.

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)is fatty inflammation of the liver when this is not due to excessive alcohol use. It is a major cause of cryptogenic cirrhosis of the liver. In NASH, fat builds up in the liver and eventually causes scar tissue. This type of hepatitis appears to be associated with diabetes, protein malnutrition, obesity, coronary artery disease, and treatment with corticosteroid medications.
It differs from the simple accumulation of fat in the liver (fatty liver, or hepatic steatosis) in that the inflammation of NASH causes damage to the liver cells. Sometimes dull right upper quadrant pain is felt, occasionally radiating to the right shoulder. Mild icterus (jaundice) can sometimes be noticed.

NASH is associated with metabolic syndrome X, diabetes mellitus (type II) and insulin resistance. Disturbed liver enzymes are common. The main cause is insulin resistance, which explains co-occurrence of NASH and syndrome X. NASH was described in 1980 (the Mayo Clinic).

NASH can also be caused by the following medications:

* Amiodarone, a class III antiarrhythmic agent used in the treatment of ventricular arrhythmias and the suppression of atrial and ventricular arrhythmias.
* Antiviral drugs (nucleoside analogues ), Most of the antivirals now available are designed to help deal with HIV; herpesvirus, which are best known for causing cold sores but actually cover a wide range of diseases; and the hepatitis B and C viruses, which can cause liver cancer.
* Aspirin / NSAIDS. Aspirin was the first discovered member of the class of drugs known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), not all of which are salicylates, though they all have similar effects and a similar action mechanism. Aspirin suppresses the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes. This happens because cyclooxygenase (COX-1), an enzyme which participates in the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes, is irreversibly inhibited when aspirin acetylates it. Prostaglandins are local hormones (paracrine) produced in the body and have diverse effects in the body, including but not limited to transmission of pain information to the brain, modulation of the hypothalamic thermostat and inflammation. Thromboxanes are responsible for the aggregation of platelets that form blood clots. Heart attacks are primarily caused by blood clots, and their reduction with the introduction of small amounts of aspirin has been seen to be an effective medical intervention. The side effect of this is that the ability of the blood in general to clot is reduced, and excessive bleeding may result from the use of aspirin. More recent work has shown that there are at least two different types of cyclooxygenase: COX-1 and COX-2. Aspirin inhibits both of them.

Newer NSAID drugs called COX-2 selective inhibitors have been developed that only inhibit COX-2, with the hope that this would reduce the gastrointestinal side effects.

However, several of the new COX-2 selective inhibitors have been recently withdrawn, after evidence emerged that COX-2 inhibitors increase the risk of heart attack. It is proposed that endothelial cells lining the arteries in the body express COX-2, and by selectively inhibiting COX-2, prostaglandins (specifically PGF2) are downregulated with respect to thromboxane levels, as COX-1 in platelets is unaffected. Thus, the protective anti-coagulative effect of PGF2 is decreased, increasing the risk of thrombus and associated heart attacks and other circulatory problems.
* Corticosteroids. are produced in the adrenal cortex. Corticosteroids are involved in a wide range of physiologic systems such as stress response, immune response and regulation of inflammation, carbohydrate metabolism, protein catabolism, blood electrolyte levels, and behavior. They work through the same eikosanoid-circles as above.
* Glucocorticoids such as cortisol control carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism and are anti-inflammatory by preventing phospholipid release, decreasing eosinophil action and a number of other mechanisms.
* Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone control electrolyte and water levels, mainly by promoting sodium retention in the kidney.
* Methotrexate, to treat many kinds of cancers.
* Nifedipine, is a dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker. Its main uses are in angina pectoris and hypertension, although a large number of other uses have recently been found for this agent, such as Raynaud's phenomenon, and esophagus-spasms.
* Perhexiline maleate
* Tamoxifen, is an oral selective estrogen receptor modulator which is used in breast cancer.
* Tetracycline is an antibiotic produced by the streptomyces bacterium.
* Valproic acid is a sodium salt of valproic acid. is a anticonvulsant and mood-stabilizing drug used primarily in the treatment of epilepsy and bipolar disorder; but also used to treat migraine headaches and schizophrenia. In epileptics, valproic acid is used to control absence seizures, tonic-clonic seizures (grand mal ), complex partial seizures , and the seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome .

Valproate is believed to affect the function of the neurotransmitter GABA (as a GABA transaminase inhibitor) in the human brain.

Cirrhosis.
Cirrhosis is a chronic disease of the liver in which liver tissue is replaced by connective tissue, resulting in the loss of liver function. Cirrhosis is caused by damage from toxins (including alcohol), metabolic problems, chronic viral hepatitis or other causes. Cirrhosis is sometimes referred to by its obsolete eponym Laennec's cirrhosis after René Laënnec. Cirrhosis is irreversible but treatment of the causative disease will slow or even halt the damage.

Cirrhosis has many possible causes; sometimes more than one cause are present in the same patient. Alcohol seems to injure the liver by blocking the normal metabolism of protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The hepatitis B virus is probably the most common cause of cirrhosis worldwide, especially South-East Asia. Inherited diseases. These interfere with the way the liver produces, processes, and stores enzymes, proteins, metals, and other substances the body needs to function properly.

* Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency
* Hemochromatosis (iron accumulation)
* Wilson's disease (copper accumulation)
* Galactosemia
* Glycogen storage diseases
* Cystic fibrosis

Early symptoms include red palms , spider angioma (red spots on the upper body), hypertrophy of the parotid glands, and fibrosis of tendons in the hands. Clubbing may develop.

Many people with cirrhosis have no symptoms in the early stages of the disease. However, as scar tissue replaces healthy cells, liver function starts to fail and a person may experience the following symptoms:

* exhaustion
* fatigue
* loss of appetite
* nausea
* weakness
* weight loss
* abdominal pain

As the disease progresses, complications may develop. In some people, these may be the first signs of the disease.

* Bruising and bleeding due to decreased production of coagulation factors.
* Jaundice due to decreased processing of bilirubin.
* Itching due to bile products deposited in the skin.
* Hepatic encephalopathy - the liver does not clear ammonia and related nitrogenous substances from the blood, which affect cerebral functioning: neglect of personal appearance, unresponsiveness, forgetfulness, trouble concentrating, or changes in sleep habits.
* Sensitivity to medication due to decreased metabolism of the active compounds.
* Insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes.
* Hepatocellular carcinoma is primary liver cancer, commonly caused by cirrhosis. It has a high mortality rate.
* Portal hypertension - blood normally carried from the intestines and spleen through the portal vein flows more slowly and the pressure increases; this leads to the following complications:
o Ascites - fluid leaks through the vasculature into the abdominal cavity.
o Esophageal varices - collateral portal blood flow through vessels in the stomach and esophagus. These blood vessels may become enlarged and are more likely to burst.
* Problems in other organs. Cirrhosis can cause immune system dysfunction, leading to infection. Fluid in the abdomen (ascites) may become infected with bacteria normally present in the intestines (spontaneous bacterial peritonitis). Cirrhosis can also lead to impotence, kidney dysfunction and renal failure (hepatorenal syndrome ) and osteoporosis.
# Drugs or toxins.
# Repeated bouts of heart failure with liver congestion.
# Certain parasitic infections (like schistosomiasis).

Vitamins and nutrient supplies.
Doctors often claim that excess vitamins and nutrients may be dangerous. And of course it may be so. But I have tried to look for such natural remedy issues without success. I have found simply nothing.

The main reason for such interferens is
* excess fat-soluble vitamins as vit A.
* excess betacaroten as an antioxidant. Observe that antioxidants in a way neutralize the workings of free radicals, that our body itself manufacture, and which is needed by our immune system. Excess of antioxidants means eventually that cancercells avoid destruction.
* webshop remedies are not always safe. In the best they can continue absolutely no essential essence, but at worst they can continue heavily toxins or parasites. Remedies bought from webshops abroad is done at own risk.
* Individual differences, partly heredical. For example differences in detoxification system due to cytocrom differences. Also deseaces may change the tolerance to high doses of vitamins/nutrients. In the same way some sick people or older people may have an increased demand for vitamins/nutrient supply.

Used in the way terapeuts or doctors ordinate vitamins are usually safe to use.

References:
Ludwig J, Viggiano TR, McGill DB, Oh BJ. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: Mayo Clinic experiences with a hitherto unnamed disease. Mayo Clin Proc. 1980;55:434-438. PMID 7382552.

http://www.biologydaily.com/biology/Liver

WikiLiver: A Wiki dedicated to the liver

http://www.healthinfoarticles.com/liver.html

The fractal brain

Is the brain self-similar, or fractal?
The complexity of human brain geometry suggests a description based on fractality, a mathematical construction to describe self-similarity in various objects in dead and living matter. This would mean that properties or patterns of small cortex structures would be equal to larger ones. Topology is another character. That is the possibility to recognize different forms in smaller, as well as in larger areas, thou somewhat tortoised. This picture refers to average picture of function and structure in brain, not detailed anatomy or fysiology.


Fractal brain, fractal art. It looks like the brain is made of energy, and that energy is shooting outwards from the brain.

During 1990-decade several authors found fractal geometry of brain highly probable. Surface-to volume ratio, external cortex surface, 3-D analysis of fixed brains, interface between grey and white matter, etc. From these it seems that white matter has indeed a fractal geometry, but perhaps not including all the brain. In neuroscience, researchers have examined the structure of axonal networks connecting individual neurons and whole-brain networks of interregional pathways.
Verification is needed.

The geometry of human cortical grey matter was the subject for Kiselev 2008. Analysis including all spatial scales from size of the brain to the ultimate image resolution showed fractality down to scale size 2,5 mm, corresponding to the cortex thickness. Also the folding of the brain shows fractality for the largest spatial scales. Note that two individuals are never identical, nor has cortex the same thickness everywhere. The foldings can be described as dilations, showing different characteristics for inner and outer surfaces of cortex. Averages may show errors. As a whole fractality exists in both area and volume of the brain.

There is also a possibility for correlations with brain deseases.

Brain function.
Brain function depends on adaptive self-organization of large-scale neural assemblies, but little is known about quantitative network parameters governing these processes in humans. Here, the topology and synchronizability of frequency-specific brain functional networks.
Brain functional networks were characterized by small-world properties at all six wavelet scales considered, corresponding approximately to classical δ (low and high), θ, α, β, and γ frequency bands. Global topological parameters (path length, clustering) were conserved across scales, most consistently in the frequency range 2–37 Hz, implying a scale-invariant or fractal small-world organization. Dynamical analysis showed that networks were located close to the threshold of order/disorder transition in all frequency bands. The highest-frequency γ network had greater synchronizability, greater clustering of connections, and shorter path length than networks in the scaling regime of (lower) frequencies. Behavioral state did not strongly influence global topology or synchronizability; however, motor task performance was associated with emergence of long-range connections in both β and γ networks. Long-range connectivity, e.g., between frontal and parietal cortex, at high frequencies during a motor task may facilitate sensorimotor binding.

Human brain functional networks demonstrate a fractal small-world architecture that supports critical dynamics and task-related spatial reconfiguration while preserving global topological parameters.

The small-world topology of brain functional networks is largely preserved across multiple frequency bands and behavioral tasks. The canonical small-world network is one in which the majority of edges are recruited to form small, densely connected clusters, whereas the remainder are involved in maintaining connections between these clusters.

Patterns of functional connectivity across a large number of recording sites were obtained for each of six distinct temporal scales ranging over all classical EEG frequency bands, from low (1.1–2.2 Hz) to gamma (37.5–75 Hz). These correlations between signals in wavelet space express a statistical association between recording sites, a signature of dynamical interactions between brain regions. The authors then transform the continuous symmetric matrix of wavelet correlations obtained for each frequency band to a binary symmetric matrix by applying a threshold

Small-world attributes reflect the need of the network to satisfy simultaneously the opposing demands of local and global processing and that they may reflect an organization that tends to minimize the number of processing steps. Given the spatial complexity of neural dynamics, it seems likely that functionally relevant communication would have to occur across multiple frequency bands. Correlations to EEG - EMG - EXG ??? If the small-world functional architecture revealed by Bassett et al. indeed promotes efficient interregional communication, then it should be found across multiple temporal scales.

It appears that brain networks preserve global topological characteristics (continually maintaining the balance of efficient local and global processing) while flexibly adapting the specifics of the topology to satisfy changing task demands. Interestingly, it appears that higher-frequency bands (beta and gamma) exhibit more extensive changes in connection patterns across tasks, specifically in the form of new long-range functional relationships between sensory and motor regions during the execution of a motor task.

The idea that perception and cognition depend critically on patterns of synchronization and desynchronization, fits perfectly in this picture. The dynamic coupling and uncoupling of distant neural sites reflect changes in sensory inputs, task demands, thinking or attention. The fact that these synchronization patterns occur at multiple frequencies might mean that brain functional networks contain multiple ‘‘frequency channels’’ along which information is transmitted. What happens when the global topology of human brain functional networks changes across all frequency bands or within a specific range of frequencies. Empirical evidence suggests that such changes in global network topology occur between sleep and waking.

Is form a reason for function?
Can function be revealed by structure? This is an old question, not yet answered. In brain we have Broadmanns areas that certainly suggest functions. A small-world network has been suggested to be an efficient solution for achieving both modular and global processing—a property highly desirable for brain computations.

Functional connectivity has previously been shown to correlate with structural (anatomical) connectivity patterns at an aggregate level.
1. strong functional connections commonly exist between regions with no direct structural connection, rendering the inference of structural connectivity from functional connectivity impractical;
2. indirect connections and interregional distance accounted for some of the variance in functional connectivity that was unexplained by direct structural connectivity;
3. resting-state functional connectivity exhibits variability within and across both scanning sessions and model runs.

These empirical and modeling results demonstrate that although resting state functional connectivity is variable and is frequently present between regions without direct structural linkage, its strength, persistence, and spatial statistics are nevertheless constrained by the large-scale anatomical structure of the human cerebral cortex.

Self-organization is a inherent principle in brain and in whole universe? This question links to the traditional chinese medicine (Yin and Yang) and the entropy model of body/mind/brain.

References:
Bassett DS, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Achard S, Duke
T, Bullmore E. 2006: Adaptive reconfiguration of fractal small-world human brain functional networks. PNAS 2006, vol. 103 no. 51:19518-19523 http://www.pnas.org/content/103/51/19518.abstract
Comment PNAS 2006 vol. 103 no. 51:19219–19220, Olaf Sporns and Christopher J. Honey.
Small worlds inside big brains.

Luke Gardiner by deviantART. http://rustkill.deviantart.com/art/Fractal-Brain-7070062 Fractal brain, fractal art
It looks like the brain is made of energy, and that energy is shooting outwards from the brain.

Honey, C. J., O. Sporns, L. Cammoun, X. Gigandet, J. P. Thiran, R. Meuli, and P. Hagmann (2009): Predicting human resting-state functional connectivity from structural connectivity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009 106:2035-2040 http://www.pnas.org/content/106/6/2035.abstract

Kiselev, V. G.; Hahn, Klaus und Auer, Dorothee P. (2002): Is the Brain Cortex a Fractal? Sonderforschungsbereich 386, Discussion Paper 297. 18. November 2008 http://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/1675/

Massimini M, Ferrarelli F, Huber R, Esser SK, Singh H, Tononi G (2005) Science 309:2228–2232.

Kasvohalvaus

c.Sörensensistem
Kasvovyöhyketerapia auttaa tehokkaasti kun on kyse erilaisista sairauksista, fysiologisista, psyykkisistä sekä funktionaalisista vyöhykkeistä. Tavallisesti kehon eri alueet liitetään yhteen vyöhykkeiden avulla.
Esittelemme täällä kasvohalvauksen saaneen naisen, millaista terapia on sekä tulokset jotka on saavutettu kasvovyöhyke menetelmällä

Potilas, 41 v nainen, leikattiin päästä jotta saataisiin kasvain kuulohermosta (acoustic neurinom, hyvänlaatuinen kasvain pikkuaivon, pons ja aivorungon välissä) poistettua. Leikkaus tapahtui helmikuussa 2007, joka johti kasvohalvaukseen. Lääkäri sanoi ettei hermo vahingoittunut leikkauksessa, mutta hermo oli puudutettu ja sen pitäisi herätä uudelleen. Hänen oikeanpuolinen korvansa kuuroutui myös, koska kuulohermo, 8. kraniaalihermo, oli poistettu kokonaan.

Fysioterapia sekä kasvojen lihaksien kuntoutus aloitettiin heti kahdeksan viikon ajaksi, mutta tuloksetta. Parannus tapahtui hyvin hitaasti. Kesäkuun puolivaiheessa potilas lähti Hannek Van Baal's klinikalle Hollantiin, joka suorittaa Lone Sorensenin terapiaa. Silloin hänellä oli ollut oireita kasvohalvauksesta jo neljän kuukauden ajan. Hän ei pystynyt sulkemaan tai liikuttamaan silmäluomeansa, joten hänen corneansa kuivui ja hänen oli pakko suojella silmäänsä koko ajan muovilla. Hänen suupieli oli laskenut ja suu työntyi sivulle. Erityisesti hänen ollessa väsynyt teetti hänellä vaikeuksia puhua.
Hän ei ollut vielä silloin palannut takaisin työhönsä sairaanhoitajana.

Parannus puolen vuoden sisällä.
Terapeutti aloitti potilaan hoidon Lone Sorensen ohjauksien mukaisesti kasvovyöhyketerapiaa käyttäen. Jokainen vyöhyke kasvoissa analysoitiin perusteellisesti, jotta isoin häiriö eli deposiitti löydettäisiin. Se on myös vanhin toiminnallinen este ja siten ongelman syy. Sitä hoidettaessa vaikutus heijastuu myös kaikkiin muihin ongelmiin. Tällä kerta syy löydettiin hormonisysteemistä; tasapaino rauhasten, kudoksien, lihaksien ja tunteiden kesken oli häiriintynyt. Terapeutti antoi erikoishoidon tälle alueelle jotta tasapaino saataisiin palautettua, sekä akupisteille jotka säätävät ja stimuloivat energiavirran kasvoille ja keholle. Myös kaikki aivohermojen vyöhykkeet saivat erikoishoitoa. Lisäksi hän käytti tiettyjä hermopisteitä suulle ja silmille, seuraten menetelmää jonka Toht. Quoc Chau otti esille Vietnamissa juuri kasvojen hermopisteiden hoitoa varten.

Erittäin tärkeää on myös kasvojen lihaksien hieronta. Nyt käytettiin karttaa jonka Toht. Castillo Morales, Argentiina, on ottanut esille. Hän on tehnyt erittäin tärkeän työn, jossa hän on liittänyt aivojen toiminnat ja kasvojen lihaksien jännitystilat yhteen. Kartan avulla hän pystyy laukaisemaan lihaksien jännitystilan. Kaikki nämä ideat Lone Sorensen käytti kasvovyöhyketerapiassa josta syntyi siten kokonaisvaltainen terapiamuoto. Hän voi tarpeen mukaan käyttää jopa neljäätoista eri terapiamuotoa. Tässäkin tapauksessa käytettiin sarja akupisteitä erityisesti halvauksen hoitoa varten.

Hoito purkaa ylimääräisen jännitystilan samalla kun se antaa uskoa ja toivoa että edistystä on mahdollista saada aikaan, kun potilaat huomaavat eron. Tämäkin seikka on erittäin tärkeää hyvinvoinnin kannalta.

Hoito.
Jo ensimmäisen hoidon aikana hän tunsi eron kasvoissaan. Myös pieni lihas nenän alla liikkui. Hän oli hyvin väsynyt hoidon jälkeen, mutta samalla myös hyvin innoissaan.
Kahden seuraavan hoitokerran jälkeen hän kykeni liikuttamaan silmäkaareansa ja nostamaan nenänsä hiukan.
Neljännen hoidon jälkeen hän näki selkeämmin ja tunsi itsensä vahvemmaksi. Yksi syvällisempi lihas alkoi toimia jälleen.
Viidennen hoidon jälkeen hän sai enemmän energiaa, ja lihas silmän alla alkoi toimia. Nyt hän yritti tehdä työtä muutamia tuntia päivässä, jotta hän tuntisi rajansa. Hän kävi terapeuttinsa luona jonka piti purkaa kasvojen lihaksien jännitystila leikkauksen jälkeen, mutta tämä ei silloin voinut auttaa. Hän näki suuren eron sekä fyysisesti että mentaalisesti.
Kuudennen hoidon jälkeen hän osasi jakaa energiansa paremmin ja jo seitsemännen hoidon jälkeen hän tunsi itsensä hyvin rennoksi, ja hän kykeni melkein pistämään silmänsä kiinni. Hän näytti myös hyvin rennolta ja hän pystyi liikuttamaan kasvolihaksiaan koko ajan.

Seuraavien viikkojen aikana hän kävi työssään useammin ja tunsi itsensä vahvemmaksi. Jokaisen hoidon jälkeen hän tunsi eron: pistely ja "perhos-tuntuma" oikealla puolella kasvoissa silmän ja korvan ympäri. Hän pystyi myös kyynelehtimään jälleen.

Joulukuuhun 2007 saakka hän kävi joka viikko terapeutin luona, ja jokaisella kerralla hän toipui vähän. Hän pystyi saamaan kehon ilmeitä aikaan, jonka lisäksi leuka-alue sekä kasvojen alaosa oli kiinteämpi. Otsan alue oli kokonaan liikkumaton ennen tätä, mutta nyt hän pystyi tuntemaan lihasliikkeitä myös otsassaan.

Hän sai jälleen normaalin elämän. Tämä oli joulukuussa, yhdeksännentoista hoitokerran jälkeen.

2008 aikana hän työskenteli yhä enemmän, yhtä lailla kuin hänen työtoverinsakin. Hän jatkoi hoitoaan, mutta nyt joka toinen viikko. Parannusta jatkui edelleen, mutta hitaammin.

Maaliskuussa hän kävi neurologinsa luona joka oli erittäin yllättynyt kun näki potilaansa edistykset, vielä melkein vuoden kuluttua leikkauksesta.

Lähteet:
http://www.castillomoralesvereinigung.de/Castillodata/English/Konzept.html
11th. Newsletter of GLOBAL FACIAL NETWORK
Sep 2008
How to treat Facial Paralyse
Case of Facial Paralyse

Microsystems as Fractals of the Human Body

Today there exists many forms of therapies that point out the fractal characteristics of the human body. Every part of the body can be seen as holographic system of its own. So the hand and the foot, the leg, the arm, the ear, the face, the head etc. are small copies of the body reflected to the skin. Also inner parts as the tongue, the teeth, the large intestine are microsystems, but because they are inner parts they are seldom used.


Location of auricular organ projection areas related to gallbladder (1), appendix (2), stomach (3), uterus (4), heart (5), and lungs (6)

The idea is based on the principle of the fractalisation of living and non-living nature and on the acupuncture channels systems wave essence. This theory allows from physics point of view explain such categories of traditional chines medicine as meridian, point, microacupuncture system, Qi-energy, pathogen factors. Possible amount of projection microsystems on skin surface and mucous membranes is unlimited.

The necessity of scientific elaboration of physiologic mechanisms of treatment effects are badly needed. The problems with skin electrical potentials are enlighted in an article here. Three lines of scientific evidence suggest that impedance at APs is electrically distinct from non-AP sites and that changes in skin impedance at APs may be of substantial diagnostic, therapeutic and research significance.

The medicine has long known such mechanisms as referred pain (reflexes of pain to the skin), trigger points (reflexes to muscles and tendons), dermatomes (reflexes from the nerves to the skin), and sclerotomes (from bones to skin), reflexes from the heart and intestine, the tendons, the muscles etc. Reflexes are very important as a whole for the body. They are used as messengers for feed-back and feed-forward mechanisms, or in short as stress responses, and the aim for these responses are to adapt the body to its surroundings. The stress can be outer stress from the surroundings, but more often it is inner stress, built up by the individual. In chinese traditional medicine they also say, that illness can never come from outside, if the body is in balance.

Reflexes from skin to the organs
These same reflexes can also be used the other way; from the skin we can see our inner body. We can diagnose imbalances in different organs, as seen from South-Africa, where Szopinski among others found that all our inner organs had reflexes to the skin. This is called organ electrodermal diagnostics (OED)and has a a thorough scientific background, including two Ph.D. theses, a master's degree dissertation and several research articles published in international medical journals (can be requested from Diagnotronics). This has been investigated academically for 20 years.
OED is the first method of this kind that has undergone double-blind clinical trials with positive results.

Rectification ratios obtained at Organ Projection Areas, OPAs, related to diseased organs before premedication were approximately 3 times higher than readings from control points. Premedication, general anesthesia, and skin incision did not influence the results. However, direct surgical manipulation of the diseased organs resulted in a rapid and statistically significant (P<.001) increase in the rectification ratios observed in the related skin areas. In addition, rectification ratios were significant (P<.001) for all conditions vs control.

Various specific relationships between the skin and internal organs are known. Pain sensitivity (e.g., as assessed by means of Head's dermatomes), skin temperature, hydration, and color, as well as electrical parameters, may be changed by internal organ pathology. Correlations between skin electrical resistance and psychological status (psychogalvanic reaction) are used in polygraph tests. The impact of endocrine function and autonomic innervation of particular dermatomes on the skin's electrical resistance is also well known. The electrical current perception threshold is influenced by many diseases.

Many authors have investigated the effect of particular organ pathology on the electrical parameters of the corresponding skin areas. Diagnostic methods based on measurements of electrical potential, resistance, and impedance of these zones have been proposed. However, their diagnostic accuracy has not been proven and reproducibility has not been consistent. Some of these methods use specific bioelectrical properties of acupuncture points.

A breakthrough effect
A wide variety of measurement techniques and current parameters are used in the above-mentioned methods. The results obtained often depend on perspiration, which is influenced by the patient's muscular tension, emotional condition, skin hydration, procedure duration, environmental temperature, and humidity, as well as the pressure of the measuring electrode. Therefore, these methods did not find widespread application in contemporary medicine, and the authors' ideas did not create a unified and systematic scientific basis for the use of bioelectrical skin properties for organ diagnostics.

The nervous system is the primary computing system of the human body. The sensory nervous system detects any damage done to the body from both outside and inside and sends the information, at the earliest stage of pathology, to the central nervous system, which controls potent self-defense mechanisms. The CNS cannot simultaneously process all available information, originating internally and externally, due to limited capacity. The necessity to eliminate information which is less important at the time, created the specific converging structure of the sensory nervous system.

Due to the specific structure of the nervous system, this information also reaches certain skin areas (Convergence Modulation Theory), causing changes in the skin's bioelectrical properties. This phenomenon opened new and logical opportunities for medical diagnostics. OED is the first clinically proven method of this kind which accesses the body's own information system, the 'first hand' source of diagnostic information.

The CNS gives higher priority to signals resulting from external stimuli (skin) than to messages coming from internal organs: information coming from sensory organs is generally more important for the organism's self-defense and survival. This is why signals generated by internal organs can be blocked by even mild stimulation of the relevant skin areas. 'Convergence modulation theory' is introduced, which proposes that acupuncture and other reflexive therapies function by controlling the flow of information in the nervous system and thereby reprogramming the powerful self-defense systems according to actual needs.

The OED device utilizes the electrical “breakthrough effect” of the skin to estimate the extent of the diode phenomenon in skin areas corresponding to particular internal organs. In this way OED identifies diseased internal organs and estimates the intensity of pathological processes within these organs.

Reflexological research
The American Academy of Reflexology conducted the first reflexology research study to ever be published in scientific medical literature, when the study appeared in the prestigious journal, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Vol. 82, #6, December 1993.
In China was an clinical trial (16 patients) made on this subject too in 1993 (Qi)to Testify the Relationship Between Large Intestine and Its Foot Reflex Zone. This study revealed that foot reflexology of the large bowel and rectum have an obvious relationship with disorders of corresponding anatomic structures.
Since then many other Reflexology Research Studies have been reported around the world.

Microsystems
Acupuncture as a science are nowadays going through an enormous developement. Different microsystems are detected from different parts of the body. From the first look even the brief review astonishes by their variety. Auriculotherapy (Nogier), Su Jock-therapy (Park Jae Woo), ECIWO-therapy (Zhang Ying Qing), oral acupuncture (J. Gleditch), iridodiagnostics, nasal therapy, different modifications of scalptherapy (including Yamamoto New Scalp Acupuncture-YNSA), facial reflexology (Sörensen) vaginal acupuncture (H. Buchheit), clavicle needle injection – that is a far not full list.

All the varieties of these systems are united by their general property – each of them is a projection of all body parts and internal organs on the limited section of the skin, mucous membrane and periosteum. The organs are extrapolated not only morphologically, but also functionally. It’s evidently impossible to explain such kind of reflection on so various and removed surfaces by the only means of neurohormonal connections. Nevertheless the clinical efficiency of influence on the microsystems points is out of doubt. One of modern theories of the acupuncture influence is the fractal-field model of organism structure. It exactly opens the way for the microacupuncture systems appearance, structure and activity understanding.

Benua Mandelbrot, working in the field of nonlinear equations and complex numbers is the father of fractal geometry. Their peculiarity is that the primary (mother’s) figure gives rise to the absolutely similar in form and contents but smaller in size figures. This similarity is mathematically endless in principle, but the real size of the smallest figure must be restricted by atom size. Apart from the self-organization principle here is demonstrated the dialectical unity of structure and chaos during the same process: the central symmetrical figure at the beginning of the process is gradually turning to the chaotic “fractal dust” on the periphery.

Recently the fractalisation (similarity) principle has been recognized as the basic principle of nature self-organization. A lot of similar to fractal structures were also discovered in the organism. The organisms are said to be geometrical, topological, and fractal in its forms. Furthermore besides structural there are functional fractals as well. For example, according to the ECG Holter monitoring data, the curve depicting the alteration of heart’s contractions frequency for 24 hours, is identical to the R-R interval (electrocardiogram) one minute’s exchange diagram.

There were many attempts to explain the nature of acupuncture meridians. Now you can count about twenty theories, that confirms that the problem has not been solved yet. One of modern views is the fractal-field model of the organism structure, which describes the meridian as a wave’s extreme cycle in the organism coherent field with projection on the body surface at the acupuncture points zone. According to the positions, the main function of the meridians is an informational exchange between the organism (microspace) and the environment (macrospace). The goal of this exchange is the adaptation of on organism for the environment’s changeable conditions.

Negentropy maximization principle.
One concept that is often used is entropy. When the differentation increases the entropy becomes smaller. The negative entropy of a living system is the entropy that it exports to keep its own entropy low; it lies at the intersection of entropy and life. Negentropy is used as a measure of distance to normality. Negentropy is the force that seeks to achieve effective organizational behavior and lead to a steady predictable state. Planck thermodynamic potential, known also as free entropy, has been shown to play a great role in the so-called entropic formulation of statistical mechanics, applied among the others in molecular biology. The term was introduced by Erwin Schrödinger in his 1943 popular-science book What is life. Matti Bergström uses this in his dipole brain theory. Also different low energy lasers are used in this way. The "healthy" frequence is 632 nm, used by Anu Mäkelä among others. Its "healtiness" depends on its harmonious characteristics.

Quantum biology.
In quantum physics the different elementar particles also behaves according to the same principles, and how could it be otherwise. The life, and all the world, is built from these particles. They have also a supersymmetry of bosons and fermions. That is matter and not matter, perhaps dark matter. From this simple equation is then the whole universe built. Soon, perhaps, we have the answers, when the so called Higgs particle´s secret is revieled.

One fundamental aspect in understanding of fractalization principle is Planck constant. Matti Pitkänen has developed a fascinating theory, TGD, that will unite the quantum world with our classical world ontology. And there is the Planck constant hierarchy very central, indeed. The thought that the hierarchy of Planck constants could label levels of fractal hierarchy is quite new, and hitherto controversial. But it looks very good.

The evolution goes up the ladder of Planck constants. The different Planck constants grows bigger as evolution goes on, and the materia condensates at magnetic flux tubes containing dark matter forming a fractal hierarchy.

As above, so below, is the ancient saying, that in this way can be said to be true. I will come back to this fascinating question later.

It is a very fruitful combination to unite biology with physics. The physic tries to get the simple picture, so often lost in science. Said with Matti Bergströms words on the observer-problem - "There then appears to be a paradox: a "sleeping physicist" would be the best, ideal, observer, since the imaginary, subconscious dimension would not affect the cortical/sensory functions and the results of our observation in physical experiments. There would be no iterations in the observing Self. And no local "dance", nor uncertainty, in the observed object."

Here links also the very complicated question of EEG, EMG, EXG, seen as fractals. Also other electromagnetic frequencies may be involved. The Yin and Yang of our world?

Conclusions
- Microacupuncture systems are one of the manifestations of fractalisation, the universal principle of self-organization in nature.
- The number of possible microsystems is unlimited.
- Resolution of a microsystem and its influence on the organism depend on the size of its projection on the surface of skin, mucous membrane and periosteum. This influence is the most effective in the points of the classical acupuncture meridians.
-The fractal-field theory of the microacupuncture systems needs the elaboration of the physiological mechanism for the medical effect realization.


Literature:
Bergström Matti 2006: Imaginary Time, Real Time and Complex Time
- a brain based analysis of the time concept to be used in physical science. http://www.matti-bergstrom.fi/complextime.html

Bouevitch, Vadim M.Ac. Microacupuncture Systems as Fractals of the Human Body.
http://www.fractal.org/Life-Science-Technology/Publications/Microacupuncture-Systems-as-Fractals.htm

http://www.reflexologyresearch.net/CatReflexologyMaps.shtml
http://www.reflexologyresearch.net/ResearchCatList.shtml

Colbert A. P. et. al.: Skin Impedance Measurements for Acupuncture Research: Development of a Continuous Recording System. eCAM Advance Access published online on June 15, 2007, http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/nem060v1?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=1&andorexacttitle=and&titleabstract=Skin+Impedance+Measurements+for+Acupuncture+Research&andorexacttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&fdate=//&resourcetype=HWCIT

Nebrat V. The physical model of the low energy electromagnetic field influence on the human body through acupuncture points. Saint-Petersburg. 2-nd European Congress “Acupuncture White Nights-97”. Poster.

Paitgen H.-O., Richter P.H. The beauty of Fractals. Images of complex dynamical systems. Heidelberg. Springer-Verlag, 1986 p.175

Pitkänen Matti, 2006: Does TGD Predict the Spectrum of Planck Constants? http://tgd.wippiespace.com/public_html/tgdquant/tgdquant.html#Planck and
- 2008: TGD Inspired Quantum Model of Living Matter. http://tgd.wippiespace.com/public_html/articles/quantumbio.pdf

Qi, H., "Clinical Trial to Testify the Relationship Between Large Intestine and Its Foot Reflex Zone." 1993 China Reflexology Symposium Report, Beijing : China Reflexology Association, pages 60-61.

http://diagnotronics.com/index_files/Page538.htm
Szopinski J.Z., Pantanowitz D., Lochner G.P. Estimation of the diagnostic accuracy of organ electrodermal diagnostics. South African Medical Journal 2004, Vol. 94, No. 7, pp 547-551.
Szopinski J.Z., Sierak T., Lochner G.P. Neurophysiological foundations of organ electrodermal diagnostics, acupuncture, TENS and other reflexive therapies. South African Journal of Anaesthesia and Analgesia 2004, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp 21-27.

JZ Szopinski & D Pantanowitz: Estimation of the diagnostic accuracy of organ electrodermal diagnostics. South African Medical Journal > Vol. 94, No. 7 (2004).
http://www.ajol.info/viewarticle.php?id=14403
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15285457?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DefaultReportPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum&log$=freejr